Database entry
WaterLevel 1 of 6 calculation factorCalculation factor, level 1 of 6Database structure
WaterLevel 1 of 6 calculation factorCalculation factor, level 1 of 6Database structure 
6Territories
5Organisations
4Occupations and activities
3Uses
2Machine operationsWater from electricity generation, per kWh
The water evaporated by power plants to produce one kilowatt-hour.
- A range of readings is available, without a single factor selected for the calculation.
- Out of scope: water withdrawn then returned to the river, fuel extraction and power plant construction.
Sentence to citeWater of electricity generation: from 0.004 to 17 L per kWh depending on the source, no value selected.
Origin of the value
Almost nothing for wind and solar, about 2.5 litres for nuclear or coal cooled by a tower, 17 litres for a dam. No per-country value is selected until convention C6 is settled: the range of readings of the same scope is published as it stands.
Characteristics
| Unit | 1 kWh |
|---|---|
| Counted | the water evaporated by the plant while it generates |
| Not counted | water withdrawn then returned to the river, fuel extraction and power plant construction |
| Status | published, 7 readings of the same scope |
All the characteristics
| Identifier | IA-0002, projetcelsius.com/en/ai/database/IA-0002/ |
|---|---|
| Version | 0.3 of 2 November 2026 |
| Category | Calculation factors, the foundation of the calculation |
| Choice of the selected value | value taken as it stands from its source, without calculation |
| Sources | LBNL, Macknick et al., 2012 to 2024 |
| Licence | CC BY 4.0 |
Published values
7 figures for the same quantity, each in its own scope.
| Source | Date | Water | What the figure measures | Scope | Status |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Macknick et al., NREL ↗Operational water consumption and withdrawal factors for electricity generating technologies: a review of existing literature (Environmental Research Letters) | 2012 | 0.004 L/kWh | Ground-mounted photovoltaic, water consumed in operation (panel cleaning); wind consumes nothing | same scope | estimated |
| Macknick et al., NREL ↗Operational water consumption and withdrawal factors for electricity generating technologies: a review of existing literature (Environmental Research Letters) | 2012 | 0.78 L/kWh | Combined-cycle gas plant cooled by a tower, water consumed in operation, median of US studies | same scope | estimated |
| Macknick et al., NREL ↗Operational water consumption and withdrawal factors for electricity generating technologies: a review of existing literature (Environmental Research Letters) | 2012 | 1 L/kWh | Once-through nuclear plant, cooled by river or sea water, water consumed in operation | same scope | estimated |
| Macknick et al., NREL ↗Operational water consumption and withdrawal factors for electricity generating technologies: a review of existing literature (Environmental Research Letters) | 2012 | 2.5 L/kWh | Nuclear plant cooled by a tower, water consumed in operation, median of US studies | same scope | estimated |
| Macknick et al., NREL ↗Operational water consumption and withdrawal factors for electricity generating technologies: a review of existing literature (Environmental Research Letters) | 2012 | 2.6 L/kWh | Coal plant cooled by a tower, water consumed in operation, median of US studies | same scope | estimated |
| Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory ↗2024 United States Data Center Energy Usage Report | Dec. 2024 | 4.5 L/kWh | Water consumed to produce the electricity of US data centres in 2023, according to the mix of the regions where they are located | same scope | estimated |
| Macknick et al., NREL ↗Operational water consumption and withdrawal factors for electricity generating technologies: a review of existing literature (Environmental Research Letters) | 2012 | 17 L/kWh | Hydropower, water evaporated from dam reservoirs, median of the studies | same scope | estimated |
The published figures do not all count the same scope; the scope of each figure is written next to it. Why do the estimates diverge?
Methodology conventions
With their alternatives
| The three waters | On-site water, power plant water and life cycle water are never added together without saying so; the factor remains to be settled |
|---|---|
| Calculate a case without an entry | The formula, the default values and a step-by-step example |
Uses in the hub
Charts, figures, analyses and articles that cite this entry
History
Entry in version 0.3 of 2 November 2026, in the database in version 0.4
- 2 November 2026Designation : The water of one kilowatt-hour becomes Water of electricity generation, per kWh.More precise designation: the object first, the specification after the comma, the quantity or period at the end; the former title remains searchable.
- 2 November 2026Status and value : without a selected value, unpublished becomes published, range 0.004 to 17 L/kWh.The range of the seven readings of the same scope (water consumed by the plant, by source) is published as it stands; no per-country value is selected until convention C6 is settled.
- 31 October 2026Creation of the database, in its first version (0.1).
