Active materials are the largest source: their extraction and refining (cathode, anode, electrolyte, separator) account for 40 to 60% of the footprint, led by nickel, cobalt and graphite for NMC. Cell manufacturing (dry room, electrochemical formation) contributes 15 to 25%, and its impact depends mainly on the factory’s electricity mix. Overall, the cell accounts for 70 to 80% of the pack’s impact. Sea transport from Asia contributes only 3 to 5% of the footprint.
Read the source article: Lithium-ion battery carbon footprint: how to reduce it